Carbon Enabled Vertical Organic Light Emitting Transistors

ABSTRACT

Devices, structures, materials and methods for carbon enabled vertical light emitting transistors (VLETs) and light emitting displays (LEDs) are provided. In particular, architectures for vertical polymer light emitting transistors (VPLETs) for active matrix organic light emitting displays (AMOLEDs) and AMOLEDs incorporating such VPLETs are described. Carbon electrodes (such as from graphene) alone or in combination with conjugated light emitting polymers (LEPs) and dielectric materials are utilized in forming organic light emitting transistors (OLETs). Combinations of thin films of ionic gels, LEDs, carbon electrodes and relevant substrates and gates are utilized to construct LETs, including heterojunction VOLETs.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent ApplicationNo. 62/501,617, filed May 4, 2017, the disclosure of which isincorporated herein by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

Devices, structures, materials and methods for carbon enabled verticalorganic light emitting transistors and light emitting displays arepresented.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED) displays have been highlyanticipated by electronic consumers due to their well-recognizedadvantages in power consumption, pixel brightness, viewing angle,response time, and contrast ratio over liquid crystal displays (LCD).(See, e.g., G. Gu and S. R. Forrest, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics inQuantum Electronics, vol. 4, pp. 83-99, 1998, the disclosure of which isincorporated herein by reference.) However, the advances promised byOLEDs have not been realized at least partially as the result oflimitations in the materials used in their formation. For example, thecurrent active matrix TFT backplanes used to drive AM-LCD pixels aretypically made of amorphous silicon (a-Si), which has a low mobility (−1cm²V⁻¹'s⁻¹) and poor stability, and is therefore unsuitable for OLEDpixels. (See, M. J. Powell, IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, vol.36, pp. 2753-2763, 1989, the disclosure of which is incorporated hereinby reference.) As a result of these deficiencies, currently AMOELDdisplays are driven by low temperature polycrystalline silicon (poly-Si)TFTs that suffer from high fabrication cost and time, and device size,orientation, and inhomogeneity limitations, all of which present asevere challenge to increasing display size and production yield. (See,e.g., C.-P. Chang and Y.-C. S. Wu, IEEE electron device letters, vol.30, pp. 130-132, 2009; Y.-J. Park, M.-H. Jung, S.-H. Park and O. Kim,Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 49, pp. 03CD01, 2010; andP.-S. Lin, and T.-S. Li, IEEE electron device letters, vol. 15, pp.138-139, 1994, each of the disclosures of which are incorporated hereinby reference.)

Solution processible organic semiconductor materials are attractivealternatives to poly-Si because of their homogeneity, low cost, andvaried deposition methods. (See, e.g., D. J. Gundlach, et al., IEEEElectron Device Letters, vol. 18, pp. 87-89, 1997; H. Yan, et al.,Nature, vol. 457, pp. 679-686, 2009; and A. L. Briseno, et al., Nature,vol. 444, pp. 913-917, 2006, the disclosures of each of which areincorporated herein by reference.) However, in a conventional TFTarchitecture, the low-mobility of organic films requires a largesource-drain voltage (>20 V) to turn on the OLED devices. (See, H.Sirringhaus, et al., Science, vol. 280, pp. 1741-1744, 1998, thedisclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.) Stablehigh-transconductance organic thin-film electrochemical transistorsusing a high capacitance electrolyte as the gate dielectric layer havebeen demonstrated. (See, e.g., J. H. Cho et al., Nature Materials, vol.7, pp. 900-906, 2008; and Y. Xia, et al., Advanced Functional Materials,vol. 20, pp. 587-594, 2010, the disclosures of each of which areincorporated herein by reference.) Using these devices it is possible tocontrol a high efficiency red, green and blue AMOLED with supplyvoltages near 4 V and sub-1 V driving voltages. (See, e.g., D. Braga, etal., Advanced Functional Materials, vol. 22, pp. 1623-1631, 2012, thedisclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.) Though theseapproaches are promising, the required fabrication steps still limit thesimplicity of system architecture and consequently production costs.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Devices, structures, materials and methods for graphene enabled verticalorganic light emitting transistors (OLETs) and organic light emittingdisplays (OLEDs) are provided.

Some embodiments are direct to vertical light emitting transistors,including:

-   -   a light emitting cell including a light emitting layer formed of        at least one light emitting material, the light emitting layer        having first and second sides in conductive relation to a        conductive drain electrode and a conductive source electrode;    -   at least one capacitor including a dielectric layer formed of at        least one dielectric material, the at least one dielectric layer        having first and second sides in conductive relation to one of        either the conductive source or drain electrodes, and a        conductive gate electrode; and    -   at least one substrate in supportive relation with each of said        drain/source and gate electrodes;    -   wherein the drain and source electrodes are the cathode and        anode of the light emitting cell; and    -   wherein at least the electrode disposed between the light        emitting layer and the dielectric layer is a gate tunable carbon        electrode.

In some other embodiments the carbon enabled vertical light emittingtransistor, includes:

-   -   a light emitting cell comprised of a light emitting layer formed        of at least one light emitting material, the light emitting        layer having first and second sides in conductive relation to a        conductive drain electrode and a source electrode;    -   at least one capacitor comprised of a dielectric layer formed of        at least one dielectric material, the at least one dielectric        layer having first and second sides in conductive relation to        one of either the conductive source or drain electrodes, and a        conductive gate electrode; and    -   at least one substrate in supportive relation with each of said        drain and gate electrodes;    -   wherein the drain and source electrodes are the cathode and        anode of the light emitting cell; and    -   wherein at least the electrode disposed between the light        emitting layer and the dielectric layer is a gate tunable carbon        electrode.

In still some other embodiments all of the electrodes are formed of atransparent carbon material.

In yet some other embodiments the carbon electrode is formed of one ormore layers selected from the group of graphene, graphene oxide,fluorographene, graphane, functionalized graphene sheets, orcombinations thereof.

In still yet some other embodiments the light emitting layer is formedof a light emitting material selected from the group consisting of acrystalline semiconductor selected from GaN, GaP, GaAs, AlGaAs, GaAsP,AlGaInP, ZnSe, InGaN and AlN; a semiconductor nanowire selected from Siand GaAs; a quantum wall; an organometallic complex; an Irorganometallic complex; a small organic conjugated molecule; porphyrin;pentacene; and a conjugated polymer selected from PPV, PVK, MEH-PPV,PPF, PFO and PPP.

In still yet some other embodiments the dielectric material is selectedfrom the group of an oxides selected from SiO₂, Al₂O₃, HfO₂, ZrO₂; anitride; Si₃N₄; an inorganic salts selected from LiF, CsF, BaTiO₃, andSrTiO₃; a dielectric polymer selected from PMMA, Teflon, CYTOP, andNafion; and an ionic gel formed from the combination of a dielectricpolymer and an ionic liquid.

In still yet some other embodiments the transistor further includes atleast one additional light emitting enhancement layer selected from thegroup consisting of electron injection dipole layers, transportationdipole layers, conjugate polyelectrolyte layers, and hole injectionlayers.

In still yet some other embodiments the substrate is selected from thegroup consisting of flexible plastics, Si wafer, glass, sapphire, andITO.

In still yet some other embodiments the transistor further includes aheterojunction transistor comprising: an additional carbon electrodedisposed between a dielectric layer and a semiconductor layer disposedadjacent the dielectric layer of the at least one capacitor such thatthe vertical light emitting transistor has a two transistor and onecapacitor control. In some such embodiments the semiconductor layer isformed of a material selected from the group of inorganicsemiconductors, oxide semiconductors, flakes of 2D layered materials,and organic thin films.

In still yet some other embodiments the vertical light emittingtransistor is one of either top or bottom-gated.

Various other embodiments are directed to methods of forming verticallight emitting transistors, including:

-   -   forming a light emitting layer formed of at least one light        emitting material, the light emitting layer having first and        second sides;    -   forming at least one of a conductive drain electrode and a        conductive source electrode in conductive relation with at least        one side of said light emitting layer;    -   forming a least one capacitor comprised of a dielectric layer        formed of at least one dielectric material, the at least one        dielectric layer having first and second sides in conductive        relation to one of either the conductive source or drain        electrodes, and a conductive gate electrode;    -   encapsulating the formed layers using one of either a glass or        barrier film; and    -   wherein at least the electrode disposed between the light        emitting layer and the dielectric layer is a gate tunable carbon        electrode.

In various other embodiments the methods further includes one of thefollowing combination of steps:

-   -   disposing the light emitting material atop a PEDOT coated ITO        substrate, disposing one of either the drain or source electrode        atop the light emitting layer, disposing the dielectric layer        atop the one of either the drain or source electrode present        atop the light emitting layer, and disposing the gate electrode        atop the dielectric layer;    -   disposing a first dielectric layer atop a first gate electrode,        disposing one of either the drain or source electrode atop the        first dielectric layer, disposing the light emitting layer atop        the one of either the drain or source electrode disposed atop        the first dielectric layer, disposing one of either the drain or        source electrode atop the light emitting layer; disposing a        second dielectric layer over the one of either the drain or        source electrode disposed atop the light emitting layer, and        disposing a second gate electrode atop the second dielectric        layer;    -   disposing the dielectric layer atop the gate electrode,        disposing one of either the drain or source electrode atop the        dielectric layer, and disposing the light emitting layer atop a        PEDOT coated ITO substrate that is further laminated with the        one of either the drain or source electrode which is disposed        atop the dielectric layer; and    -   disposing the dielectric layer atop the gate electrode,        disposing one of either the drain or source electrode disposed        atop the dielectric layer, disposing the light emitting layer        atop the one of either the drain or source electrode disposed        atop the dielectric layer, and disposing the light emitting        layer that is laminated with the one of either the drain or        source electrode not disposed atop the dielectric layer.

In still various other embodiments the light emitting layer is formed bya deposition process selected from plasma enhanced chemical vapordeposition, low pressure chemical vapor deposition, molecular beamepitaxy, spin-coating, spray coating, aerosol jet printing, inkjetprinting, screen printing, gravure printing, and flexograph printing.

In yet various other embodiments at least one of the source, drain, andgate electrodes comprise a metal selected from Al, Au, Ag, Cu, Ni, Cr,Mo, and their combination formed by plasma enhanced chemical vapordeposition or low pressure chemical vapor deposition.

In still yet various other embodiments the at least one carbon electrodeis formed from a material selected from the group of graphene, grapheneoxide, fluorographene, graphane, functionalized graphene sheets, orcombinations thereof. In some such embodiments the carbon electrode isformed by a process selected from transferring, spin-coating, spraycoating, aerosol jet printing, inkjet printing, screen printing, gravureprinting, and flexograph printing.

In still yet various other embodiments the dielectric layer comprises adielectric material selected from SiO₂, Al₂O₃, Si₃N₄ HfO₂, ZrO₂ and LiFformed by a process selected from one of either plasma enhanced chemicalvapor deposition and low pressure chemical vapor deposition.

In still yet various other embodiments the dielectrics layer comprisesone of a dielectric polymer, an ionic gel, and a dielectricpolymer/nanoparticle composite formed by a process selected fromspin-coating, spray coating, aerosol jet printing, inkjet printing,screen printing, gravure printing, and flexograph printing.

In still yet various other embodiments the method further includesforming a heterojunction above or below the transistor comprising anadditional carbon electrode disposed between a dielectric layer and asemiconductor layer disposed adjacent the dielectric layer of the atleast one capacitor such that the vertical light emitting transistor hasa two transistor and one capacitor control.

Many other embodiments of the invention are directed to vertical lightemitting displays including a plurality of pixels comprising a pluralityof vertical light emitting transistors electronically coupled intoaddressing electrode lines, each vertical light emitting transistorincluding:

a light emitting cell comprised of a light emitting layer formed of atleast one light emitting material, the light emitting layer having firstand second sides in conductive relation to a conductive drain electrodeand a source electrode;

-   -   at least one capacitor comprised of a dielectric layer formed of        at least one dielectric material, the at least one dielectric        layer having first and second sides in conductive relation to        one of either the conductive source or drain electrodes, and a        conductive gate electrode; and    -   at least one substrate in supportive relation with each of said        drain and gate electrodes;    -   wherein the drain and source electrodes are the cathode and        anode of the light emitting cell; and    -   wherein at least the electrode disposed between the light        emitting layer and the dielectric layer is a gate tunable carbon        electrode.

In many other embodiments the vertical light emitting transistorsfurther comprises a heterojunction comprising an additional carbonelectrode disposed between a dielectric layer and a semiconductor layerdisposed adjacent the dielectric layer of the at least one capacitorsuch that the vertical light emitting transistor has a two transistorand one capacitor control.

In still many other embodiments the light emitting layer is formed of alight emitting material selected from the group consisting of acrystalline semiconductor selected from GaN, GaP, GaAs, AlGaAs, GaAsP,AlGaInP, ZnSe, InGaN and AlN; a semiconductor nanowire selected from Siand GaAs; a quantum wall; an organometallic complex; an Irorganometallic complex; a small organic conjugated molecule; porphyrin;pentacene; and a conjugated polymer selected from PPV, PVK, MEH-PPV,PPF, PFO and PPP;

the dielectric material is selected from the group of an oxides selectedfrom SiO₂, Al₂O₃, HfO₂, ZrO₂; a nitride; Si₃N₄; an inorganic saltsselected from LiF, CsF, BaTiO₃, and SrTiO₃; a dielectric polymerselected from PMMA, Teflon, CYTOP, and Nafion; and an ionic gel formedfrom the combination of a dielectric polymer and an ionic liquid;

the substrate is selected from the group consisting of flexibleplastics, Si wafer, glass, sapphire, and ITO; and

wherein the at least one carbon electrode is formed from a materialselected from the group of graphene, graphene oxide, fluorographene,graphane, functionalized graphene sheets, or combinations thereof.

Additional embodiments and features are set forth in part in thedescription that follows, and in part will become apparent to thoseskilled in the art upon examination of the specification or may belearned by the practice of the invention. A further understanding of thenature and advantages of the present invention may be realized byreference to the remaining portions of the specification and thedrawings, which forms a part of this disclosure.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The description will be more fully understood with reference to thefollowing figures and data graphs, which are presented as exemplaryembodiments of the invention and should not be construed as a completerecitation of the scope of the invention, wherein:

FIG. 1A provides a schematic diagram of a bottom-gated organic lightemitting diode with a graphene injection electrode in accordance withembodiments of the invention.

FIG. 1B provides a schematic diagram of a top-gated organic lightemitting diode with a graphene injection electrode in accordance withembodiments of the invention.

FIG. 2 provides a schematic circuit diagram of a gated organic lightemitting diode in accordance with embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 3A provides a schematic diagram of a bottom-gated organic lightemitting diode with graphene electrodes in accordance with embodimentsof the invention.

FIG. 3B provides a schematic diagram of a top-gated organic lightemitting diode with graphene electrodes in accordance with embodimentsof the invention.

FIG. 4A provides a schematic diagram of a bottom-controlled organiclight emitting diode with graphene electrodes in accordance withembodiments of the invention.

FIG. 4B provides a schematic diagram of a top-controlled organic lightemitting diode with graphene electrodes in accordance with embodimentsof the invention.

FIG. 5 provides a schematic circuit diagram of an organic light emittingdiode with all graphene electrodes in accordance with embodiments of theinvention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Turning to the drawings, devices, materials and methods for formingcarbon enabled organic light emitting transistors (OLETs) and displaysformed from such diodes are provided. In particular embodiments,architectures for carbon (e.g., graphene) graphene) enabled verticalorganic light emitting transistors (VLETs), and in particular carbon(e.g., graphene) enabled vertical organic light emitting transistors(VOLETs) for active matrix organic light emitting displays (AMOLEDs) andAMOLEDs incorporating such VOLETs are described. Although many VLETarchitectures are provided, in embodiments novel VLET architecturesincorporating single and multiple graphene electrodes are described. Insuch embodiments, the brightness and device efficiency of the OLETs maybe controlled by tailoring the work function of the graphene by the useof electrostatic gating fields. In some embodiments, combinations ofsuitable graphene layers, LEDs, and relevant substrates and gates areutilized to construct such VOLETs, including carbon injectionelectrodes, all carbon electrodes, and suitable carbon enabled controlcircuitry. In many embodiments, the VOLET substrates are transparentand/or flexible, and can be made of suitable materials such as PET. Inother embodiments, processes such as, for example, spin-coating andprinting processes are utilized to deposit layers of graphene, LEDs, anddielectric materials on various substrates to construct the OLETs. Itwill be understood that for the purposes of this disclosure graphene andcarbon may be used interchangeably and may refer to various forms ofgate tunable carbon, as will be described in greater detail below.

As previously discussed, active matrix organic light emitting displays(AMOLEDs) are highly attractive due to their power saving, ultra highdefinition, and broad viewing angles. In particular, advances in organiclight emitting transistors (OLETs) exhibit improved external efficiencyover organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) by directly modulating chargecarriers of light emitting materials. Further, inducing a verticalstructure in OLETs circumvents the intrinsic low mobility of organicmaterials by providing short channel length, thereby making it possibleto achieve high conductance at low power and low voltages, thusenhancing the energy conversion efficiency, the lifetime and stabilityof the organic materials. Moreover, combining thin film transistor (TFT)switching and OLED light emitting properties in a single device leads toa simplified fabrication process and reduced cost. However, technicalchallenges still exist. As will be described below, the use of novelgraphene materials and manufacturing combinations, in charge injectionlayers and electrode structures can provide devices with wholly novelproperties.

Embodiments Incorporating Carbon Materials

As previously discussed, OLETs have been demonstrated to exhibit ON/OFFfunctionality of TFTs and the electroluminescence of OLEDs in a singledevice. (See, e.g., J. Zaumsei, R. H. Friend and H. Sirringhaus, Naturematerials, vol. 5, pp. 69-74, 2005; R. Capelli, et al., NatureMaterials, vol 9, pp. 496-503, 2010; and M. Muccini, Nature Materials,vol. 5, pp. 605-613, 2006, the disclosures of which are incorporatedherein by reference.) Vertical-type OLETs have been reported on varieddesigns and operating principles to operate in low-voltages with shortchannel length. In particular, LEPs have been fabricated into PLETs withnoble metals as electrodes. (See, e.g., J. Zaumsei, R. H. Friend and H.Sirringhaus, Nature materials, vol. 5, pp. 69-74, 2005, the disclosureof which is incorporated herein by reference.) Various VPLETs were alsoreported that demonstrated poor performance. (See, e.g., B. Park and H.Takezoe, Applied Physics Letters, vol. 85, pp. 1280-1282, 2004; H.Lechi, et al., Synthetic Metals, vol. 154, pp. 149-152, 2005; K. Kudo,Current Applied Physics, vol. 5, pp. 337-340, 2005; S. Y. Oh, et al.,Molecular Crystals and Liquid Crystals, vol. 458, pp. 247-254, 2006; Z.Xu, et al., Applied Physics Letters, vol. 91, pp. 092911, 2007; and H.Yamauchi, et al., Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 46, pp.2678, 2007, the disclosures of each of which are incorporated herein byreference.) In addition, severe material limitations exist as to usableelectrode materials. In particular, electrodes of transmittance greaterthan 98% across the visible spectrum window are required to allow forthe emission of light in these devices across their full aperture. (See,e.g., B. Park and H. Takezoe, Applied Physics Letters, vol. 85, pp.1280-1282, 2004; H. Lechi, et al., Synthetic Metals, vol. 154, pp.149-152, 2005; K. Kudo, Current Applied Physics, vol. 5, pp. 337-340,2005; S. Y. Oh, et al., Molecular Crystals and Liquid Crystals, vol.458, pp. 247-254, 2006; Z. Xu, et al., Applied Physics Letters, vol. 91,pp. 092911, 2007; H. Yamauchi, et al., Japanese Journal of AppliedPhysics, vol. 46, pp. 2678, 2007; and K. Nakamura, et al., JapaneseJournal of Applied Physics, vol. 47, pp. 1889, 2008, the disclosures ofeach of which are incorporated herein by reference.)

Transparent conductive electrodes are characterized by benchmark valuesfor transparency and conductivity. A good material for use in VOLETdevices should have a high transparency and a low sheet resistance.Currently the state of the art in transparent conductive electrodes isITO (Indium titanium oxide), which has an excellent combination of hightransparency and low sheet resistance. However, ITO is made of lowabundance elements, and thus increases device cost. There are manyfast-emerging transparent conductive materials like TCO (Transparentconductive oxide), PEDOTs (poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)) and otherhighly doped conductive polymers. (See, e.g., C. Keplinger, et al.,Science, vol. 341, pp. 984-987, 2013, the disclosure of which isincorporated herein by reference.)

Carbon (e.g., graphene) has been extensively investigated for scientificresearch and technological applications due to its unique electrical,mechanical and optical properties. Combined with the high conductivityand high transparency in optical window, graphene has been reported fortransparent electrodes for organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs).Additionally, the work function of graphene can be adjustedelectrostatically over a wide range by tuning the Fermi energy (EF) viathe electrostatic field effect. A Schottky barrier (SB) occurs at theinterface between graphene electrode and semiconductor, thus the chargecarrier injection/collection from graphene/semiconductor tosemiconductor/graphene can be modulated by adjusting SB height viaexternal gating filed. This gate tunable charge injection property ofgraphene may be employed to build vertical heterojunction transistorswith inorganic semiconductors (n- and p-type silicon), oxidesemiconductors (n-type indium gallium zinc oxide), flakes of 2D layeredmaterials (hexagonal boron nitride, molybdenum disulfide, and tungstendisulfide), and organic thin films (P3HT and C60). In addition, theenhanced lateral thermal conductivity of graphene can spread the thermalload to a larger area and thus reduce the thermal resistance. Finally,the use of graphene for the graphene material layer also can lower thestructure turn-on voltage of the structure thereby reducing powerdissipation within the structure.

Devices are now proposed in which carbon (e.g., graphene) isincorporated into OLEDs or VOLETS to implement gate tunable chargeinjection in these devices, such that brightness and device efficiencycan be controlled by tailoring the work function of the graphene via anelectrostatic gating field. Embodiments are now directed to such carbonenabled VOLETs and the methods of their manufacture.

Embodiments of VOLETs and OLEDs Comprising Graphene Injection Electrodes

In many embodiments, schematics of which are provided in FIGS. 1A and1B, the instant disclosure provides VOLET and OLED devices having acarbon (e.g., graphene) injection electrode. As shown, in some suchembodiments the structure of such carbon enabled VOLETs and OLEDscomprise, a heterostructure disposed between suitable electrodes (e.g.,metal such as Al, Mo, Cr, Cu, Ag, Pt, Pd, Au, etc.) comprising agraphene injection electrode (e.g., formed of layer of graphenetransferred, printed or grown) disposed atop a suitable dielectric(e.g., Al₂O₃, SiO₂, HfO₂, SiNx, ZrO₂, BaSrO₃, BaTiO₃, polymer, polymerelectrolytes, electrolytes, ionic liquids, ionic gels, etc.) and betweenthe dielectric and a light emitting layer (e.g., suitable RGB smallmolecules or conjugated polymers), and a hole/electron injection layer(e.g., suitable semiconductor in many embodiments an organicsemiconductor material) disposed opposite the graphene injectionelectrode and adjacent the light emitting layer. Although FIG. 1Aprovides a schematic diagram showing a bottom-gated OLED where thegraphene injection electrode is disposed below the OLED (e.g., the lightemitting and hole/electron injection layers), in accordance withembodiments if the gated graphene injection electrode is insteaddisposed atop the OLED it is possible to obtain a top-gated OLED, asshown, for example, in FIG. 1B.

To understand the principle of the construction of the graphene enabledOLED devices in accordance with embodiments, FIG. 2 provides a circuitdiagram. As shown, OLEDs in accordance with embodiments comprise attheir core a Shottky Barrier transistor formed by the contact of thegraphene injection electrode and the light-emitting material. In turn,the dielectrics sandwiched between the gate electrode and the grapheneforms a capacitor, and the heterostructure comprising the grapheneinjection electrode, light-emitting material, hole/electron injectionlayer and diode electrode form the OLET itself. Importantly, thepresence of the graphene injection electrode of the device, and theinherent physical properties of the graphene material that allows forthe modulation of graphene's work function (e.g., carrier concentration)under the influence of an external electric field also allows for theSchottky Barrier transistor to be tuned (e.g., potential barrier heightadjusted), in turn allowing for the OLET itself to be tuned as desiredduring operation.

Embodiments of VOLETs and OLEDs Comprising Multiple Graphene Electrodes

As discussed above, VOLETs and OLEDs generally comprise a capacitor andlight emitting cells joined by a common electrode. Accordingly, in manyembodiments vertical light emitting transistors and gated organic lightemitting diodes are provided that include a light emitting cell thatincludes a light emitting layer formed of at least one light emittingmaterial, a least one capacitor that includes a dielectric layer formedof at least one dielectric material, wherein at least the electrodedisposed between the light emitting layer and the dielectric layer is agraphene electron injection electrode, such that the properties of thedevices (e.g., brightness and efficiency) can be controlled by tailoringthe work function of the graphene via an electrostatic gating field.However, as also described, three electrodes are required in an OLED, acommon-source electrode, a gate electrode, and a drain electrode. Inmany embodiments all of these electrodes may be formed by graphenelayers.

Specifically, as shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B, many embodiments are directedto OLEDs in which the conventional metal electrodes are replaced bytransparent graphene electrodes. In these cases, the gated OLEDs wouldbe fully transparent. Alternatively, the gate and drain electrodes couldbe formed of other suitable transparent electrode materials, such as,for example transparent conductive oxides, such as, ITO or IZO, whichmay also enable transparent devices. Regardless of the specifictransparent electrode materials used, as shown in figures, bothbottom-gated (FIG. 3A) and top-gated (FIG. 3B) OLEDs with alltransparent (e.g., graphene) electrodes may be formed in accordance withembodiments.

Embodiments of VOLETs and OLEDs Comprising Heterojunctions

Although single transistor VOLET and OLED device structures have beendescribed, it should be understood that the materials and layersdiscussed above may be combined in a variety of differentconfigurations. For example, as shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B a singly gatedVLET in accordance with embodiments may generally include at leastdrain, source and gate electrodes, which may be formed using grapheneelectrodes surrounding a light emitting layer (such as formed by anorganic light emitting material), and a dielectric layer (such as anionic gel) sandwiched between the light emitting layer and a furthergate electrode (which could again be formed of graphene). In otherembodiments, for example, a vertical heterojunction transistor may alsobe formed.

Specifically, in the exemplary embodiments provided in FIGS. 4A and 4B agraphene enabled vertical heterojunction transistor may be implemented.As shown, in some embodiments, the graphene enabled verticalheterojunction transistor may comprise a switching transistor formed bya heterostructure comprising a semiconductor layer, a graphene electrodeand a dielectric, the heterostructure being disposed between a switchingtransistor electrode and the diode electrode of the OLED. In thebottom-controlled heterojunction transistor of FIG. 4A the sequence ofstructures would be: a graphene electrode, a dielectrics layer, a secondgraphene electrode and a semiconductor stacked in sequence from bottomto top. Similarly, in embodiments of a top-gated OLED with all grapheneelectrodes (FIG. 3B), a graphene enabled vertical heterojunctiontransistor would be added as shown in FIG. 4B, where the grapheneenabled vertical heterojunction transistor would be built with agraphene electrode, dielectrics layer, a graphene electrode andsemiconductor stacked in sequence from top to bottom. Regardless of thespecific alignment and exemplary circuit diagram of such aheterojunction transistor is presented in FIG. 5. As shown, in eitherembodiment the OLED is controlled by two transistors and one capacitor(e.g., 2T1C) circuitry.

Regardless of the specific architecture, it will be understood that thesemiconductor can be inorganic semiconductors (n- and p-type silicon),oxide semiconductors (n-type indium gallium zinc oxide), flakes of 2Dlayered materials (hexagonal boron nitride, molybdenum disulfide, andtungsten disulfide), and organic thin films (P3HT and C60), as will bedescribed in greater detail below. Similarly, although these embodimentsare shown with all graphene electrodes, it will be understood that theymay also be combined with embodiments incorporating conventional metalelectrodes.

OLEDs formed in accordance with embodiments and controlled by such 21TCcircuitry can be implemented as a single pixel unit of an OLED display.For example, where the OLED incorporates all transparent grapheneelectrodes, as shown in the exemplary embodiments provided in FIGS. 4Aand 4B, such 21TC controlled OLEDs may be used in flexible andtransparent OLED displays. With micrometer of sub-micrometers masksthese stacked 21TC controlled OLEDs may also be fabricated intotransparent OLED microdisplays with high resolution.

Embodiments of Alternative VOLET and OLED Architectures

In addition, although the above has described conventional singly gatedarchitectures VOLETs using novel combinations of materials in accordancewith some embodiments, other embodiments are directed to novelarchitectures allowing for doubly gated VOLETs. Doubly gated VLETS inaccordance with embodiments would include two gate electrodes and twolayers of dielectric material (such as ionic gels) sandwiching the drainand source electrodes and in turn the light emitting layer (such as anOLED). An exemplary construction of such a doubly gated VOLET mightinclude, for example, a graphene electrode on a flexible substrates(such as, e.g., PET) to form graphene gate electrodes, then a dielectriclayer (such as an ionic gel, LiF) atop of a graphene drain electrode,graphene electrodes again atop of a dielectric layer, and agrapheneldielectric layerigraphene electrode with a grapheneelectrodeldielectrics layerigraphene supported polymer emitter to formdoubly-gated graphene enabled VOLETs on graphene conductive porouselectrodes. In short, in a singly gated VOLET there is a single gatedtransistor interconnected with the gate electrode along the data line.The source electrode is in turn connected to the V_(DD), and the drainelectrode is connected to the light emitting layer. The TFT turns onwhen a voltage pulse is applied to the gate electrode. As a result, thesignal voltage can be transmitted to the drain, and subsequently, thelight emitting layer, which is connected as load to the TFT. In adoubly-gated architecture, a second gate electrode and “gate line” isintroduced into the circuits. In such embodiments, the light emittinglayer is interconnected to the drain electrode through this second gateelectrode. This doubly gated VOLET architecture allows for theadjustment of the charge carrier from the top and bottom electrodes, andfor the control of the transportation, injection and recombination ofcharge carriers to reach charge carrier balance for maximum efficiencyand brightness. Moreover, whereas in a singly gated VOLET an additionaltransistor is required to perform switching and scribing, in a doublygated VLET a single device can serve both functions simultaneously.

More detailed descriptions of these exemplary structures, theirconstruction and performance are provided in U.S. Pat. No. 9,445,421,the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. However,although examples of specific structures and combinations of materialsand layers have been discussed, it should be understood that the variouscomponents described herein may be combined and arranged in a variety ofdevice architectures contemplated within the disclosed embodiments. Forexample, although the above exemplary embodiments and discussion hasfocused on methods, architectures and structures for individual devices,it will be understood that the same architectures and structures may becombined as pixels into a VOLET display device. In such an embodiment, aplurality of VOLETs as described herein may be combined andinterconnected as is well-known by those skilled in the art, such as byelectronically coupling the VOLETs into addressing electrode lines, toform a TFT-backplane for a display, such as an AMOLED display havingvery high resolution >2000 dpi.

Embodiments of Materials for VOLETs and OLEDs

It should be understood that the materials and methods used to form therequired components of the VOLET and OLED devices described herein maytake any form suitable for a desired application. For example, for thepurposes of this disclosure the term “graphene” may mean any suitableform of gate tunable carbon capable of being formed into suitable devicelayers. The following discussion will focus specifically on forms ofgraphene, although other forms of carbon capable of work functionmodulation may also be used.

In many embodiments, the graphene material layer can comprise one ormore graphene sheets, one or more graphene oxide sheets, one or morefluorographene sheets, one or more graphane sheet, one or morefunctionalized graphene sheets, or combinations thereof. For example, insome embodiments a graphene material layer may be a material that hasgraphene oxide sheet or a fluorographene sheet on the first surface ofthe graphene material layer, a graphene sheet on the second surface ofthe graphene material layer, and one or more graphene sheetsintermediate between graphene oxide sheet or fluorographene sheet on thefirst surface and the graphene sheet on the second surface. Otherembodiments for the graphene material layer can have other arrangementsfor the stacking of graphene sheets, graphene oxide sheets,fluorographene sheets, or the functionalized graphene sheets. Each sheetof the graphene material layer can be selected for N-type or P-typedoping characteristics, carrier density characteristics, zero-bandgap ornon-zero bandgap characteristics, and mobility characteristics. Thegraphene material layer can have intercalated atoms or molecules betweenthe graphene sheets such as intercalated hydrogen, intercalated oxygen,intercalated gold, intercalated boron, intercalated bromine,intercalated nitrogen, or other atoms or molecules. The intercalatedatoms or molecules can change the doping characteristics and bandgap ofeach of the graphene sheets and can induce a non-zero bandgap in thegraphene sheets.

The graphene material layer can be formed on a desired surface (e.g.,substrate, dielectric, semiconductor, etc.) by epitaxial growth of agraphene material layer on the substrate (such as a SiC substrate,catalytic or transition metal film on a substrate, or catalytic ortransition metal foil substrate), by growth of a graphene material layeron a second substrate and then transfer and bonding of the graphenematerial layer to the substrate, by deposition of a graphene materiallayer, by growth of a graphene material layer at the interface between ametal layer and a substrate surface, or by transfer of a graphene sheetprinted or formed elsewhere.

The graphene material layer can have small bandgap (in the case ofbi-layer graphene or doped graphene) or no bandgap (in the case ofsingle-layer graphene). Alternatively, the graphene material layers, maycomprise one or more sheets of graphene that have N-type conductionproperties (having predominantly electron conduction), one or moresheets that have P-type conduction properties (having predominantly holeconduction), or, in some embodiments, may comprise a layered structurehaving one or more sheets with N-type conduction properties and one ormore sheets with P-type conduction properties, interlayered with one ormore undoped sheets of graphene. In some cases, one or more of the topand the bottom graphene layers may be doped in a different way than theremaining graphene layers in the graphene material layer.

Graphene material layers may be formed with certain desirable propertiesincluding:

-   -   A low sheet resistance that increases the maximum frequency of        operation may also be formed. A low graphene material layer        sheet resistance can enable light-emitting devices and lasers        with low forward voltage. A low graphene material layer sheet        resistance is also important to achieve an electronic device        with high maximum frequency of operation.    -   High resistance to atoms diffusing vertically (perpendicular to        the graphene sheet) through the graphene sheet to prevent        impurities that are in the substrate material (such as        impurities in a metal foil) from diffusing through the graphene        sheet into a semiconductor material film.

Similarly, in any of the above embodiments suitable supportive substratelayers may be formed of either traditional rigid materials such assilicon wafer, glass, ITO, or flexible materials such as PET, Kapton,polyimides so long as the substrates allow for the deposition/growth ofthe necessary functional layers of the devices (dielectric, LEP,graphene electrodes, etc.). The substrate can also contain one or morematerial layers of metal, metal foil, silicon, germanium, GaN, AlN,AlGaN ZnO, BN, SiC, GaN, InP, InAs, silicon, germanium, GaSb, GaP, ZnS,InGaAs, InGaN, InAsP, InP, InGaAs, InAlAs, InGaSb, diamond,polycrystalline diamond, Chemical Vapor Deposited Diamond, composite ofpolycrystalline diamond and CVD diamond, low surface roughnesspolycrystalline diamond, or other diamond substrate material GaAs, SiC,GaSb, AlP, ZnS, GaP, AlSb, AlAs, InGaN, AlN, CdSe, InAs, SnO2:F, InSb,ZnO, BN, CdTe, CdS, In2O3:Sn, InGaN, InAsP, InP, InGaAs, InAlAs, InGaSb,metal layer on diamond, glass, metal layer on glass, quartz, metal layeron quartz, ceramic, metal layer on ceramic, polycrystalline, metal layeron polycrystalline, single crystalline, amorphous, metal layer onamorphous, Bragg mirror layers on a substrate, etch stop layer on asubstrate, or composites of such material layers.

Likewise, any suitable light emitting small molecule or polymer may beused in association with embodiments of the VOLET devices describedherein. Some examples of suitable LEPs include, poly(1,4-phenylenevinylene) (PPV),Poly(2-methoxy-5-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4-phenylenevinylene) (MEH-PPV),poly(1,4-phenylene) (PPP), polyfluorenes (PFO), nitrogen containingpolymers, such as, for example, poly(2,5-pyridine vinylene) orpoly(9-vinylcarbazole) (PVK), poly(thiophenes), and water-soluble LEPssuch as sulfonated PPV, PPP and PF; and light emitting small moleculesincluding organometallic Iridium complexes, small conjugated organicmolecules such as porphyrin and pentacene for example. It should also beunderstood that embodiments of VOLETs do not have to use small organicmolecules or LEPs, and can be formed with other types of light emittingmaterials, including semiconductor nanowires such as may be formed of Sior GaAs, quantum walls such as GaN, and conventional semiconductormaterials across the entire wavelength spectrum, such as, for example,infrared emitters (GaAs), red emitters (AlGaAs & GaP), orange emitters(GaAsP & GaP), yellow emitters (AlGaInP & GaP), green emitters (GaN &GaP), blue emitters (ZnSe), violet emitters (InGaN), ultravioletemitters (AlN), etc. And, these materials may be formed and/or embeddedwithin elastomeric materials such that they are flexible allowing forthe formation of flexible VOLETs and thus displays.

A variety of dielectric materials may also be used in embodiments, suchas for example, ionic gels formed of dielectric polymers and ionicliquids, such as, for example, polystyrene-co-poly(methylmethacrylate)-co-polystyrene (PS-PMMA-PS)/1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (EMIM TFSI), BaTiO₃/PMMA∥PEDOT/PSS,n-octadecylphosphonic acid SAM∥PEDOT/PSS, and CYTOP, and other printableor thermal vapor deposited dielectric materials such as dielectricpolymers including PMMA, Teflon, CYTOP, Nafion and the like; oxidesincluding, SiO₂, Al₂O₃, ZrO₂, HfO₂, TiO₂, and the like; inorganic saltsincluding, LiF, CsF, SrTiO₃, BaTiO₃ and the like; and nitrides includingSi₃N₄, etc.

A variety of additional layers might also be included in embodiments ofthe devices. For example, electron injection and transportation layersincorporating dipole molecules for PLEDs may also be included. Such thinlayers of such dipole molecules function by correcting the orientationof the dipole leading to an increase in the effective work function andthe improvement of electron injection in PLED devices. In particular, ithas been found that a spin-coated thin layer with 0.1% weight1-(3-hexadecylimidazolyl)-tris(1-imidazolyl)borate (C₁₆-Blm₄) inmethanol solution improved the performance of PLEDs. (See, e.g., H. P.Li, et al., Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 131, pp.8903-8912, 2009; and H. P. Li, et al., U.S. patent application Ser. No.12/592,761, 2009, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein byreference.)

Likewise, in some embodiments conjugated polyelectrolytes (CPE) may beused to improve the efficiency of PLEDs, polymer solar cells, andthin-film transistors. These improvements have been ascribed to theenhanced electron injection ability of CPE. (See, e.g., R. Yang, et al.,Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 128, pp. 14422-14423,2006; J. H. Seo, et al., Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol,133, pp. 8416-8419, 2011; and J. H. Seo, et al., Journal of the AmericanChemical Society, vol. 131, pp. 18220-18221, 2009, the disclosures ofeach of which are incorporated herein by reference.) Recently, it wasdemonstrated that by introducing a CPE layer between gold electrodes(Drain/Source) and light emitting polymers, the performance of PLETswere remarkably improved, again as a result of enhanced electroninjection again. (See, e.g., J. H. Seo, et al., Advanced FunctionalMaterials, vol. 21, pp. 3667-3672, 2011, the disclosure of which isincorporated herein by reference.) Alternatively or in addition, organicspecies, such as propionylethyleneimine-co-ethyleneimine (PEI-EI) may beintroduced to improve the electron injection of the LEPs.

Finally, for hole injection layers, polyanilines, PEDOTs andpolythiophene derivatives, as well as small molecules like cyano carbonssuch as, for example tetrafluoro-tetracyanoquinodimethane (F4-TCNQ),TCNQ, trichloroethylene (TCE), and others may be used. With gatemodulation, the induced increase of charge carriers (including electronor hole) can improve both charge injection and charge transportation.

In addition, although the above has assumed that the conductiveelectrodes would be formed of carbon materials, such as, for example,graphene materials, it should be understood that the devices may alsohave other electrode types. For example, in some embodiments, one ormore conductive source and drain electrodes may be incorporated withgate electrodes formed from materials such as, for example, carbonnanotubes, ITO, Au, Al, Cu, Ni, Mo, Cr, Ag, metal nanowires, metalmeshes, metal grids, holey copper and holey graphene, and conductivepolymers such as,poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)/poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT/PSS).\

Finally, in heterojunction embodiments, the semiconductor material layermay comprise one or more of AlGaN, GaN, AlIN, InGaN, InN, AlN, silicon,germanium, SiGe, silicene, germanene, ZrB2, GaAs, InGaAs, InAs, ZnO, BN,InAsP, InP, InAlAs, InAs InGaSb, SiC, GaSb AlP, ZnS, ZrB2, GaP, AlSb,InSb, AlAs, InAsP, InP, CdSe, SnO2:F, ZnO, BN, In2O3:Sn, diamond, CdTe,CdS, ZnTe, copper indium gallium selenide, copper zinc tin sulfide,copper zinc tin selenide, ZnS, and copper oxide. The semiconductormaterial layer can also be an artificially structured material, anon-single crystalline material, an organic semiconductor material, apolymer semiconductor material, a liquid crystalline polymer material, acrystalline polymer material, and a quasi-crystalline polymer material.Examples of organic semiconductor material include PEDOT, PEDOT:PSS andSpiro-OMeTAD. The semiconductor material film can comprise one or moresemiconductor layers. The growth temperature for semiconductor materialfilm by either CVD, MOCVD, Plasma MOCVD, remote plasma MOCVD, ALE, MBE,plasma deposition, pulse laser deposition, solid phase epitaxy, liquidphase epitaxy, spin coating, and spray coating.

Methods for Manufacturing VOLET and OLED Devices

Some embodiments are directed to methods of fabricating graphene enablesVOLETs and LEDs generally. Generally, any suitable method of depositionmay be used with the various layers and structures of the currentinvention including, for example, additive manufacturing, molecular beamepitaxy (MBE) chemical vapor deposition (CVD), atomic layer deposition(ALD), and plasma enhanced using low cost printing, spin-coating, spraycoating methods, in many embodiments, printing, such as aerosol jetprinting, may be used to deposit one or more of the layers of the LETand LED devices, including LEP inks as active light emitting materialsand carbon to form carbon electrodes of VOLETs on substrates.

Turning first to the formation of the graphene layers, the primaryapproaches for forming a graphene material layer on a substrate (e.g.,substrate, dielectric or semiconductor, etc.) are by epitaxial growth,Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) (e.g., on a metal film on a substrate orby growth on a metal foil substrate), growth of a graphene materiallayer on a second substrate and then transfer and bonding of thegraphene material layer to the substrate, deposition on a substrate bymicrowave plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, growth of grapheneat the interface between a metal and a substrate as described by, or byother methods known to those skilled in the art. In some embodiments,the graphene material layer can be formed by epitaxial growth ofgraphene material on the surface of a SiC semiconductor with the SiCsemiconductor also performing as a substrate. In other embodiments, thegraphene material layer can be grown on the surface of a metal layer ona substrate or on a metal foil such as copper, nickel, iron, cobalt, andother metal foil material that is known to those skilled in the art. Instill further other embodiments, the graphene material layer can beformed on a second substrate such copper, nickel, iron, cobalt, siliconcarbide, and other substrates known to those skilled in the art and thenbe transferred and bonded to the surface of the substrate. In stillfurther embodiments, the graphene material layer can formed on thesurface of a substrate by deposition of a graphene material layer suchas by microwave plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition.

In other embodiments the graphene layers can be formed by printingmethods, such as aerosol, roll to roll, screen and ink jet, for example,may be used to form graphene layers, nanoparticles, polymer emitters,ionic gels, and conjugated polyelectrolytes that can be used to improveOLET performance, and to produce graphene electrode supported organiclight emitting devices.

Printing is one of the most promising techniques for inexpensive largearea fabrication of plastic and nanomaterials electronics. Inparticular, aerosol-jet printing enables finer feature sizes thantraditional ink-jetting and screen printing technologies. Aerosol jetprinting utilizes an innovative direct-writing and aerodynamic focusingtechnology that produces electronics and physical structures withfeature sizes down to 10 microns line width and 20 nm thickness. Thesesystems can also print a wide variety of materials including conductivenanoparticle inks, screen printing pastes, polymers insulators,adhesives, etchants, and even biological matter onto various substrateslike non-planar surfaces. As a result, the range of possible componentsthat can be printed include transistors, integrated circuits,photovoltaics, LED's, displays and sensors. Also, direct aerosol-jetprinting simplifies the printing process as the material is deposited asa pre-defined pattern. Another aspect of current printing is itslow-cost, precise deposition, low environmental impact and large areafabrication due to the small number of process steps, small amount ofmaterials and high through-put. (See, e.g., J.-U. Park, et al., NatureMaterials, Vol. 6, pp. 782-789, 2007, the disclosure of which isincorporated herein by reference.) In embodiments of the currentinvention printing system capable of printing over complex conformalsurfaces, in deep trenches, and in high dense vertical interconnects forhigh performance of multi-chip packages may be used. One exemplaryprocess utilizes a jet aerosol system such as the 3-D Optomec AerosolJet™ printer.

One advantage of the described depositions methods is that the differentelectrical and electronic components can be printed on top of eachother, saving space and increasing reliability and sometimes they areall transparent. Accordingly, in some embodiments, deposition techniquesfor nonplanar surfaces, such as spin-coating or printing may be used todeposit the graphene electrodes as well as coat LEPs or ionic gels atopof the graphene electrodes to form integrated graphene enabled VOLETs,which can be defined as display products and components manufacturedusing deposition methods and electrically functional materials, such asprinting with electrically conductive inks. In short, using a depositiontechnique in accordance with embodiments, it is possible, provided asuitable substrate is present, to deposit the supportive grapheneelectrodes and then directly deposit atop these electrodes the necessaryLEP layers (for light emitting structures) or dielectric materials (forcapacitor structures), and to repeat this deposition process asnecessary to form singly or doubly gated devices as described above.

In certain specific embodiments, aerosol jet printing can be utilized,where the aerosol jet printing is carried out using the followingparameters; ultrasonic atomization at a voltage that ranges from about20 to about 48 V, or pneumatic atomization with about 600 cubiccentimeters per minute atomizer flow to generate aerosol in a diameterof about 1 to 5 μm, a sheath gas flow of about 20 to 50 cubiccentimeters per minute, a carrier gas flow of about 10 to 20 cubiccentimeters per minute, a nozzle diameter of from about 50 to 350 μm,such as, for example, 60 μm, 100 μm, 150 μm, 200 μm, 250 μm, or 300 μm,and a fiducial management with overlay registration of from about 1 to 2μm. In certain embodiments, the carrier gas may be inert, includingultra-pure nitrogen, argon or combinations thereof. Utilizing such aprinting technique it is possible to manufacture single and doubly gatedVOLETs that exhibit a maximum external efficiency >5%,brightness >10,000 Cd/m² and full aperture at low power and low voltage,with improved lifetime and stability.

Regardless of the technique chose, the number and properties each of thegraphene sheets in the graphene material layer can be chosen to providethe selected graphene material layer properties such as low sheetresistance or the selected electron transmission probability through thegraphene material layer. In some embodiments, the preferred number ofgraphene sheets in the graphene material film is one graphene sheet. Thegraphene material layer can have special mobility, bandgap, and lightabsorption properties for the case of one graphene sheet. The graphenematerial layer with one graphene sheet will typically have zero bandgap,will have the highest mobility, and can have special spin transportproperties. Alternatively, the graphene material layer can containgraphene sheets that are N-type or contain graphene sheets that areP-type or contain both N-type and P-type graphene sheets. The graphenematerial layer can have an overall P-type or N-type characteristicdepending on the mobility, carrier density, and number of P-type orN-type graphene sheets within the graphene material layer. The graphenematerial layer can have selected free carrier concentration and impuritydoping to generate the selected free carrier concentration. There aremultiple growth techniques of forming P-type graphene material layers.Graphene sheets that are grown on the carbon face of SiC are oftenP-type. Graphene sheets intercalatated with gold are P-type. Graphenesheet grown by CVD on a copper film are typically P-type. Graphenesheets grown on the carbon face of SiC are often P-type. Graphene grownon the silicon face of SiC are often N-type. N-type graphene can beformed by annealing in ammonia ambient or in nitrogen ambient.

Turning to the deposition of the dielectric layer, it should beunderstood that any suitable dielectric material and deposition processmay be incorporated with methods. For example, in many embodiments thedielectric layer may be made of inorganic and organic materials, anoxide, a nitride, or a nitrogen oxide, such as, for example, HfOx, SiNx,SiOx, TaOx, AlOx, Y₂O₃, or Si(ON)x. Moreover, the dielectric layer maybe in a single layer structure, a dual layer structure or a multi-layerstructure. The thicknesses of such structures may be take any sizesuitable to provide the dielectric function. In addition, the dielectriclayer may be formed by any suitable the filming process, including, forexample, magnetron sputtering, thermal evaporation, CVD (remote plasma,photo catalytic, etc.), PECVD, spin coating, liquid phase growth, etc.Finally, if necessary a variety of feedstock gas molecules may be madein association with such dielectric materials, including SiHx, NHx, N₂,and hydrogen free radical and ions. Similar techniques and materials maybe used for the other passivation layers, including those etch-stop. Inthese steps the deposit temperatures and thicknesses of the passivationmaterials may be chosen as required.

Regardless of whether the VOLET is top or bottom-gated, all VOLETs mayalso incorporate the deposition of drain/source electrodes. It should beunderstood that any suitable combination of deposition techniques andmaterials may be utilized. For example, the drain/source electrode layermay be made of any suitable metal such as Cu, Al, Ag, Mo, Cr, Nd, Ni,Mn, Ti, Ta or W, or the alloy of two or more of these metals. Thedrain/source electrode may be in a single layer structure or amulti-layer structure, and the multi-layer structure may be of, forexample Cu\Mo, Ti\Cu\Ti, Mo\Al\Mo or etc. The thickness of thedrain/source electrode layer may be similarly be of any suitable size,such as from 10 nm to more than 100 μm, and in some embodiments around400 nm, as shown in the figures. Likewise, although the process fordepositing the drain/source is listed as comprising the steps ofsputtering and patterning, it should be understood that many suitableand standard industrial processes may be use to pattern and deposit gateelectrodes atop the substrate. For example, sputtering (or physicalvapor deposition) may include one or a combination of electronic,potential, etching and chemical sputtering, among others. Depositiontechniques may alternatively include, for example, chemical (CVD),plasma-enhanced vapor deposition (PECVD), and/or thermal evaporation,etc.

Where semiconductor layers are desired, such as in heterojunctiondevices, the semiconductor material film can be formed by deposition ofmaterial layers or by direct bonding of semiconductor material film (andoptional graphene interface transition layer material) onto the firstsurface of the graphene material layer. The deposition approaches caninclude epitaxial growth, vapor phase growth, chemical vapor deposition(CVD) growth, pulse laser deposition growth, plasma enhanced CVD growth,atomic layer epitaxy growth, atomic layer deposition growth, physicalvapor deposition, sputter deposition, ion beam deposition, E-beamevaporation, spin coating, and other deposition techniques known tothose skilled in the art. In some embodiments, the semiconductormaterial film may be formed by epitaxial growth of a single-crystalmaterial, a highly ordered material, a polycrystalline material, ananocrystalline material, nanowire material, a spontaneous nucleatedmaterial, spontaneously nucleated isolated grains of material, anorganic material, a polymer material, a polymer crystalline material, aliquid crystalline polymer material, a quasi-crystalline polymermaterial, a glass, an amorphous material, an artificially structuredmaterial, a non-single crystalline material, a metal material, orcombinations thereof on the graphene material layer surface. Thesemiconductor material film may also be formed by wafer bondingsemiconductor material film to the underlying layer.

The semiconductor material film can also have organic semiconductormaterial layers such as PEDOT, PEDOT:PSS. The silicene can be grown onZrB2 that is epitaxially grown on graphene material layer. Thesemiconductor material film can comprise one or more semiconductorlayers, in some embodiments including a graphene interface transitionlayer. The growth temperature for semiconductor material film by eitherCVD, MOCVD, Plasma enhanced MOCVD, remote plasma MOCVD, ALE, MBE, plasmadeposition, pulse laser deposition, solid phase epitaxy, or liquid phaseepitaxy typically uses deposition temperature of 25 C (room temperature)to 1800 C.

The semiconductor material film can have varying dopant concentrationswithin each of the semiconductor material films and the dopant can beN-type, P-type or undoped. The semiconductor material layer in contactwith the Ohmic electrode is often selected to have high N-type or P-typedoping concentration to achieve low contact resistance. Any one of thesemiconductor, semimetal, or dielectric material layers can be N-typedoped, P-type, or undoped. One or more of the semiconductor materiallayers within the semiconductor material film can be an insulator layer.In the preferred embodiment, there is at least one semiconductormaterial layers. Any one of the substrate material layers near thesemiconductor material layer/graphene material layer interface can beP-type doped, can contain a P-type delta doped layer, or can contain agraded P-type doped layer. The P-type doped layer, P-type delta dopedlayer, or graded P-type doped layer is one approach to implement athermionic emission injection structure at the semiconductor materialfilm/graphene material layer interface and to aid in allowing a negativevoltage to be applied to the N-type semiconductor material film relativeto the graphene material layer without a low resistance connectionbetween the graphene material layer and substrate. A preferred operationmode is to be able to apply a reverse bias between the graphene materiallayer and substrate without excessive current flow because of a lowseries resistance between graphene material layer and substrate. Thesemiconductor material film can have varying dopant concentrationswithin each of the semiconductor material layers, often having a highdopant concentration region in contact with the metal electrodeconnection to the semiconductor material film to achieve low contactresistance.

A number of steps in such processes may also require the patterning andetching of materials. In such processes any suitable patterning andetching technique may be incorporated with embodiments. In particular,many of the steps incorporate a patterning process by which apassivation layer is deposited and a pattern is formed through thepassivation layer. Specifically, in many embodiments the passivationlayer may be coated with a layer of any suitable photoresist. In suchembodiments the photoresist may be exposed and developed by a mask plateto respectively form a photoresist unreserved area and a photoresistreserved area. For example, the photoresist of the unreserved area maycorrespond in various embodiments to an area where the via hole of thepassivation layer is arranged.

Where necessary, any suitable optical photolithographic technique may beused, including for example, immersion lithography, dual-tone resist andmultiple patterning electron beam lithography, X-ray lithography,extreme ultraviolet lithography, ion projection lithography, extremeultraviolet lithography, nanoimprint lithography, dip-pennanolithography, chemical lithography, soft lithography and magnetolithography, among others. Regardless of the specific techniques andlight source used, such lithographic techniques generally incorporateseveral steps. In many embodiments, the layer to be patterned is firstcoated with a photoresist, such as by spin coating. In such techniques,a viscous, liquid solution of photoresist is dispensed onto the wafer,and the wafer is spun rapidly to produce a uniformly thick layer. Thespin coating typically runs at 1200 to 4800 rpm for 30 to 60 seconds,and produces a layer between 0.5 and 2.5 micrometers thick. The spincoating process results in a uniform thin layer, usually with uniformityof within 5 to 10 nanometers, or more. In various embodiments, the photoresist-coated material may then be prebaked to drive off excessphotoresist solvent, typically at 90 to 100° C. for 30 to 60 seconds ona hotplate. After the non-masked portions of the layer are etched,either by a liquid (“wet”) or plasma (“dry”) chemical agent to removethe uppermost layer of the substrate in the areas that are not protectedby photoresist. After a photoresist is no longer needed, it is thenremoved from the substrate. This photoresist may be removed chemicallyor by a plasma or by heating.

Although specific deposition and patterning methods are disclosed, aswell as specific materials for substrates, electrodes, dielectrics,passivation layers, etc., and specific conditions, including,thicknesses, temperatures etc., it will be understood that any of theseparameters may be adjusted as necessary for the specific grapheneenabled OLET or OLED configuration and operational parameters withoutfundamentally altering the principles of embodiments that incorporatethe graphene layers disclosed herein.

EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS

Additional embodiments and features are set forth in part in theexemplary embodiment that follow, and in part will become apparent tothose skilled in the art upon examination of the specification or may belearned by the practice of the invention. None of the specificembodiments are proposed to limit the scope of the remaining portions ofthe specification and the drawings, and they are provided as exemplaryof the devices, methods and materials disclosed herein. In particular,although specific structures and particular combinations of materialsare recited, it should be understood that these are merely provided asexamples, and any suitable alternative architectures and materials maybe substituted.

Example 1: Fabrication of Graphene Enabled OLED

In one exemplary embodiment, shown schematically in FIGS. 1A and 1B, onsubstrates like glass, plastics, and silicon wafers, a layer of metalelectrode (Al, Mo, Cr, Cu, Ag, Pt, Pd and Au) may be fabricated, asdescribed, following by the fabrication of dielectrics (Al₂O₃, SiO₂,HfO₂, SiNx, ZrO₂, BaSrO₃, BaTiO₃, polymer, polymer electrolytes,electrolytes, ionic liquids, and ionic gels), again as previouslydiscussed. Then a layer of graphene may be placed on dielectrics bytransfer, printing, or directly growth, as described in greater detailabove. On the top of graphene, light-emitting materials (RGB smallmolecules or conjugated polymers) are fabricated by evaporating orspin-coating, as discussed above. Atop of light-emitting materials,hole/electron injection layer may then be deposited by evaporating orspin-coating, as discussed. The final metal electrode may then depositedto complete the device as previously discussed. Utilizing suchcombination of methods and steps graphene, light-emitting material,hole/electron injection layer and diode electrode forming alight-emitting diode may be provided. Such devices may be bottom ortop-gated, as shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B.

Example 2: Fabricating Heterojunction VOLET and OLEDs

In another exemplary embodiments, shown schematically in FIGS. 4A and4B, under bottom-gated OLED with all graphene electrodes (FIG. 3A), agraphene enabled vertical heterojunction transistor is added (FIG. 4A).The graphene enabled vertical heterojunction transistor may be builtwith a graphene electrode, dielectrics layer, a graphene electrode andsemiconductor stacked in sequence from bottom to top, where the OLED isbottom-controlled by two transistors and one capacitor (2T1C) circuitry.Similarly, on top-gated OLED with all graphene electrodes (FIG. 3B), agraphene enabled vertical heterojunction transistor is added (FIG. 4B),where the graphene enabled vertical heterojunction transistor was builtwith a graphene electrode, dielectrics layer, a graphene electrode andsemiconductor stacked in sequence from top to bottom. Here, OLED istop-controlled by 2T1C circuitry.

Example 3: VOLET Displays

Finally, although the above exemplary embodiments and discussion hasfocused on methods, architectures and structures for individual devices,it will be understood that the same architectures and structures may becombined as pixels into a VOLET display device. In such an embodiment, aplurality of VOLETs as described herein may be combined andinterconnected as is well-known by those skilled in the art, such as byelectronically coupling the VOLETs into addressing electrode lines, toform a TFT-backplane for a display, such as an AMOLED display.

DOCTRINE OF EQUIVALENTS

Having described several embodiments, it will be recognized by thoseskilled in the art that various modifications, alternativeconstructions, and equivalents may be used without departing from thespirit of the invention. Additionally, a number of well-known processesand elements have not been described in order to avoid unnecessarilyobscuring the present invention. Accordingly, the above descriptionshould not be taken as limiting the scope of the invention.

Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the presently disclosedembodiments teach by way of example and not by limitation. Therefore,the matter contained in the above description or shown in theaccompanying drawings should be interpreted as illustrative and not in alimiting sense. The following claims are intended to cover all genericand specific features described herein, as well as all statements of thescope of the present method and system, which, as a matter of language,might be said to fall there between.

What is claimed is:
 1. A carbon enabled vertical light emittingtransistor, comprising: a light emitting cell comprised of a lightemitting layer formed of at least one light emitting material, the lightemitting layer having first and second sides in conductive relation to aconductive drain electrode and a source electrode; at least onecapacitor comprised of a dielectric layer formed of at least onedielectric material, the at least one dielectric layer having first andsecond sides in conductive relation to one of either the conductivesource or drain electrodes, and a conductive gate electrode; and atleast one substrate in supportive relation with each of said drain andgate electrodes; wherein the drain and source electrodes are the cathodeand anode of the light emitting cell; and wherein at least the electrodedisposed between the light emitting layer and the dielectric layer is agate tunable carbon electrode.
 2. The vertical light emitting transistorof claim 1, wherein all of the electrodes are formed of a transparentcarbon material.
 3. The vertical light emitting transistor of claim 1,wherein the carbon electrode is formed of one or more layers selectedfrom the group of graphene, graphene oxide, fluorographene, graphane,functionalized graphene sheets, or combinations thereof.
 4. The verticallight emitting transistor of claim 1, wherein the light emitting layeris formed of a light emitting material selected from the groupconsisting of a crystalline semiconductor selected from GaN, GaP, GaAs,AlGaAs, GaAsP, AlGaInP, ZnSe, InGaN and AlN; a semiconductor nanowireselected from Si and GaAs; a quantum wall; an organometallic complex; anIr organometallic complex; a small organic conjugated molecule;porphyrin; pentacene; and a conjugated polymer selected from PPV, PVK,MEH-PPV, PPF, PFO and PPP.
 5. The vertical light emitting transistor ofclaim 1, wherein the dielectric material is selected from the group ofan oxides selected from SiO₂, Al₂O₃, HfO₂, ZrO₂; a nitride; Si₃N₄; aninorganic salts selected from LiF, CsF, BaTiO₃, and SrTiO₃; a dielectricpolymer selected from PMMA, Teflon, CYTOP, and Nafion; and an ionic gelformed from the combination of a dielectric polymer and an ionic liquid.6. The vertical light emitting transistor of claim 1, further comprisingat least one additional light emitting enhancement layer selected fromthe group consisting of electron injection dipole layers, transportationdipole layers, conjugate polyelectrolyte layers, and hole injectionlayers.
 7. The vertical light emitting transistor of claim 1, whereinthe substrate is selected from the group consisting of flexibleplastics, Si wafer, glass, sapphire, and ITO.
 8. The vertical lightemitting transistor of claim 1, further comprising a heterojunctiontransistor comprising: an additional carbon electrode disposed between adielectric layer and a semiconductor layer disposed adjacent thedielectric layer of the at least one capacitor such that the verticallight emitting transistor has a two transistor and one capacitorcontrol.
 9. The vertical light emitting transistor of claim 8, whereinthe semiconductor layer is formed of a material selected from the groupof inorganic semiconductors, oxide semiconductors, flakes of 2D layeredmaterials, and organic thin films.
 10. The vertical light emittingtransistor of claim 1, wherein the vertical light emitting transistor isone of either top or bottom-gated.
 11. A method to form vertical lightemitting transistors, comprising: forming a light emitting layer formedof at least one light emitting material, the light emitting layer havingfirst and second sides; forming at least one of a conductive drainelectrode and a conductive source electrode in conductive relation withat least one side of said light emitting layer; forming a least onecapacitor comprised of a dielectric layer formed of at least onedielectric material, the at least one dielectric layer having first andsecond sides in conductive relation to one of either the conductivesource or drain electrodes, and a conductive gate electrode;encapsulating the formed layers using one of either a glass or barrierfilm; and wherein at least the electrode disposed between the lightemitting layer and the dielectric layer is a gate tunable carbonelectrode.
 12. The method of claim 11, comprising one of the followingcombination of steps: disposing the light emitting material atop a PEDOTcoated ITO substrate, disposing one of either the drain or sourceelectrode atop the light emitting layer, disposing the dielectric layeratop the one of either the drain or source electrode present atop thelight emitting layer, and disposing the gate electrode atop thedielectric layer; disposing a first dielectric layer atop a first gateelectrode, disposing one of either the drain or source electrode atopthe first dielectric layer, disposing the light emitting layer atop theone of either the drain or source electrode disposed atop the firstdielectric layer, disposing one of either the drain or source electrodeatop the light emitting layer; disposing a second dielectric layer overthe one of either the drain or source electrode disposed atop the lightemitting layer, and disposing a second gate electrode atop the seconddielectric layer; disposing the dielectric layer atop the gateelectrode, disposing one of either the drain or source electrode atopthe dielectric layer, and disposing the light emitting layer atop aPEDOT coated ITO substrate that is further laminated with the one ofeither the drain or source electrode which is disposed atop thedielectric layer; and disposing the dielectric layer atop the gateelectrode, disposing one of either the drain or source electrodedisposed atop the dielectric layer, disposing the light emitting layeratop the one of either the drain or source electrode disposed atop thedielectric layer, and disposing the light emitting layer that islaminated with the one of either the drain or source electrode notdisposed atop the dielectric layer.
 13. The method of claim 11, whereinthe light emitting layer is formed by a deposition process selected fromplasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, low pressure chemical vapordeposition, molecular beam epitaxy, spin-coating, spray coating, aerosoljet printing, inkjet printing, screen printing, gravure printing, andflexograph printing.
 14. The method of claim 11, wherein at least one ofthe source, drain, and gate electrodes comprise a metal selected fromAl, Au, Ag, Cu, Ni, Cr, Mo, and their combination formed by plasmaenhanced chemical vapor deposition or low pressure chemical vapordeposition.
 15. The method of claim 11, wherein the at least one carbonelectrode is formed from a material selected from the group of graphene,graphene oxide, fluorographene, graphane, functionalized graphenesheets, or combinations thereof.
 16. The method of claim 15, wherein thecarbon electrode is formed by a process selected from transferring,spin-coating, spray coating, aerosol jet printing, inkjet printing,screen printing, gravure printing, and flexograph printing.
 17. Themethod of claim 11, wherein the dielectric layer comprises a dielectricmaterial selected from SiO₂, Al₂O₃, Si₃N₄ HfO₂, ZrO₂ and LiF formed by aprocess selected from one of either plasma enhanced chemical vapordeposition and low pressure chemical vapor deposition.
 18. The method ofclaim 11, wherein the dielectrics layer comprises one of a dielectricpolymer, an ionic gel, and a dielectric polymer/nanoparticle compositeformed by a process selected from spin-coating, spray coating, aerosoljet printing, inkjet printing, screen printing, gravure printing, andflexograph printing.
 19. The method of claim 11, further comprisingforming a heterojunction above or below the transistor comprising anadditional carbon electrode disposed between a dielectric layer and asemiconductor layer disposed adjacent the dielectric layer of the atleast one capacitor such that the vertical light emitting transistor hasa two transistor and one capacitor control.
 20. A vertical lightemitting display comprising a plurality of pixels comprising a pluralityof vertical light emitting transistors electronically coupled intoaddressing electrode lines, each vertical light emitting transistorcomprising: a light emitting cell comprised of a light emitting layerformed of at least one light emitting material, the light emitting layerhaving first and second sides in conductive relation to a conductivedrain electrode and a source electrode; at least one capacitor comprisedof a dielectric layer formed of at least one dielectric material, the atleast one dielectric layer having first and second sides in conductiverelation to one of either the conductive source or drain electrodes, anda conductive gate electrode; and at least one substrate in supportiverelation with each of said drain and gate electrodes; wherein the drainand source electrodes are the cathode and anode of the light emittingcell; and wherein at least the electrode disposed between the lightemitting layer and the dielectric layer is a gate tunable carbonelectrode.
 21. The vertical light emitting display of claim 20, whereineach of the vertical light emitting transistors further comprises aheterojunction comprising an additional carbon electrode disposedbetween a dielectric layer and a semiconductor layer disposed adjacentthe dielectric layer of the at least one capacitor such that thevertical light emitting transistor has a two transistor and onecapacitor control.
 22. The vertical light emitting display of claim 20,wherein: the light emitting layer is formed of a light emitting materialselected from the group consisting of a crystalline semiconductorselected from GaN, GaP, GaAs, AlGaAs, GaAsP, AlGaInP, ZnSe, InGaN andAlN; a semiconductor nanowire selected from Si and GaAs; a quantum wall;an organometallic complex; an Ir organometallic complex; a small organicconjugated molecule; porphyrin; pentacene; and a conjugated polymerselected from PPV, PVK, MEH-PPV, PPF, PFO and PPP; the dielectricmaterial is selected from the group of an oxides selected from SiO₂,Al₂O₃, HfO₂, ZrO₂; a nitride; Si₃N₄; an inorganic salts selected fromLiF, CsF, BaTiO₃, and SrTiO₃; a dielectric polymer selected from PMMA,Teflon, CYTOP, and Nafion; and an ionic gel formed from the combinationof a dielectric polymer and an ionic liquid; the substrate is selectedfrom the group consisting of flexible plastics, Si wafer, glass,sapphire, and ITO; and wherein the at least one carbon electrode isformed from a material selected from the group of graphene, grapheneoxide, fluorographene, graphane, functionalized graphene sheets, orcombinations thereof.